The study also found some referees are significantly more likely to punish players than others.

The researchers from the universities of Bath, Otago in New Zealand, St Andrews and Wales, Bangor, took into account home advantage, game importance and crowd size.

"Managers have been right to highlight inconsistencies and controversial decisions in games, but without a proper analysis of refereeing decisions over a period of time, their comments look like the usual post-match gripe, especially if they are on the losing side," said Dr Peter Dawson, an Economics lecturer at the University of Bath.

In addition, the research discovered underdogs tended to incur more disciplinary cards than favorites.

The number of offences tended to be higher in matches between evenly matched teams in games with end-of-season outcomes at stake.

Large crowds also played a key role, inspiring more aggressive playing from home teams.

Dawson, a Wigan supporter, said the research even had implications for crime studies.

"The football pitch is like a laboratory for crime economists," he said.

"You can introduce a new rule or increase the severity of a punishment and then see how long it takes for the referees and the players to adjust their behavior."

The report is due to be published in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A.

Source: Reuters